PHARMACOGNOSY
DEFINITION
Pharmacognosy
is a systematic study of crude drugs obtained from natural origins like
plants, animals, and minerals. Pharmacognosy can be defined as a branch of science
that involves a detailed study of drugs obtained from natural origin including
name, habitat, collection, cultivation, macroscopy, microscopy, physical
properties, chemical constituents, therapeutic actions, uses, and adulterants.
The word pharmacognosy is derived from two words, pharmakon means medicine
(drug) and gignosco means to acquire knowledge of something.
Prof.
John Schimidt coined the term pharmacognosy in his book Lehrbuch der
MateriaMedica. The earlier subject was known as ‘Materia medica’. It includes a systematic study of crude drugs from nature. The study of pharmacognosy includes
the history, distribution, cultivation, collection, processing, and
preservation. It also includes the study of physical, chemical, and structural
characters and the safe uses of crude drugs. In short, pharmacognosy is the study
of drugs of natural origin. Drugs of natural origin can be obtained by
plants, animals (terrestrial as well as marine), and minerals.
HISTORY AND DEVELOPMENT OF PHARMACOGNOSY
The
history of pharmacognosy is as old as human existence. To know the future one
should know the past. The word ‘Drug’ is derived from the Latin term Droog means
dried when dried plants were commonly used as medicine. Broadly, the history of
pharmacognosy can be classified into three major stages. In the first stage before the eighteenth century, very few documents and recorded evidence are available
showing the use of natural products by humans. The second stage involves the nineteenth
century, which is the time when the basic subjects have evolved. In this century, the
name pharmacognosy came into practice. Initially, the subject was more likely to
describe the botany of medicinal plants. But as time progresses, it changes
the course and encompasses extraction, isolation, and other advanced techniques.
In the twentieth century, which may be considered the third stage of development, a series of discoveries resulted in a complete metamorphosis of the subject. For the last
two decades, pharmacognosy is studied in a more systematic manner. As the herbal wave
continues to sweep the world, the importance of natural products is at the pinnacle.
People are expecting natural products to fit into the modern framework. As a result
of this, there are a series of new herbal formulations on the market.
The
ancient Egyptians documented their knowledge about medicine on paper made from Cyperusaquaticus
commonly called acquatic sage or papyrus. Papyrus Ebers (around 1500 BC), Berlin
Papyrus, Edwin Smith Papyrus, and KahunMedicak Papyrus are some of the oldest
handbooks that contain information on illness and treatments. In ancient Egypt
and Mesopotamia, clay tablets were used to document the knowledge of drugs which date back to 3000 BC. In ancient India, information about drugs was documented in
several Ayurvedic texts which still exist. Apart from Atharvaveda, there are
several books like Charak Samhita, Sushrut Samhita, Ashtanga Hridaya, Madhav Nidan, and Bhava Prakash.
In the eighteenth century, pharmacognosy was closely related to botany. In the old
days, drugs of natural origin were used in the crude form of powder or decoction.
Later in the nineteenth century, development in science expanded the arena of
pharmacognosy. Nowadays pharmacognosy has become a kind of multidisciplinary
subject that embarrasses phytochemistry, analytical pharmacognosy,
pharmacotherapy, medicinal plant biotechnology, herbal formulations, and
nutraceuticals. Zoopharmacognosy is a branch of pharmacognosy that involves the observation of animal behavior for the discovery and development of new drugs. Nowadays, drugs of natural origin are studied, formulated, and regulated in the
framework of modern medicine.
1. Sumerians and Akkadians (3rd millennium BC)
2. Egyptians (Ebers papyrus, 1550 BC)
3. Hippocrates (460-377 BC) “The Father of Medicine”
4. Dioscorides (40-80 AD) “De MateriaMedica” (600 medicinal plants)
5.The Islamic era IbnAltabari (770−850) ”الحكمهفردوس“
6.Ibn Sina (980-1037) "”الطبفيالقانون
7.Ibn Albitar (1148-1197) ”واألغذيةاألدويةلمفرداتالجامع“
8. The era of European exploration (16th and 17th century)
9. The 18th century, Pharmacognosy: Johann Adam (1759-1809): surgeon and ophthalmologist"
10. In 1811 his Lehrbuch der MateriaMedica was published, which was work on medicinal plants and their properties.
11. Linnaeus (naming and classifying plants)
12. At the end of the 18th century, crude drugs were still being used as powders, simple extracts, or tinctures
13. The era of pure compounds (In 1803, a new era in the history of medicine)
14.ƒ Isolation of morphine from opium ƒ Strychnine (1817) ƒ Quinine and caffeine (1820) ƒ Nicotine (1828) ƒ Atropine (1833) ƒ Cocaine (1855)
15. In the 19th century, the chemical structures of many of the isolated compounds were determined
16. In the 20th century, the discovery
of important drugs from the animal kingdom, particularly hormones and vitamins.
•microorganisms have become a very important source of drugs
SCOPE OF PHARMACOGNOSY
Pharmacognosy
is critical in the development of different disciplines of science. A
pharmacognosist should possess a sound knowledge of the terms used to describe
the vegetable and animal drugs as covered under botany and zoology,
respectively. The knowledge of plant taxonomy, plant breeding, plant pathology, and plant genetics is helpful in the development of cultivation technology for
medicinal and aromatic plants. Plant chemistry (phytochemistry) has undergone
significant development in recent years as a distinct discipline. It is concerned
with the enormous variety of substances that are synthesized and accumulated by
plants and the structural elucidation of these substances. Extraction,
isolation, purification, and characterization of phytochemicals from natural
sources are important for advancing the medical system. The knowledge of chemotaxonomy,
biogenetic pathways for the formation of medicinally active primary and secondary
metabolites, plant tissue culture, and other related fields is essential for a complete understanding of Pharmacognosy. One should have a basic knowledge of
biochemistry and chemical engineering is essential for the development of the collection, processing, and storage technology of crude drugs.
Pharmacognosy
is important to the branch of pharmacy which is playing a key role in new drug discovery
and development by using natural products. Pharmacognosy has given many leads
for new drug discovery and development.
It
is an important link between modern medicine systems (allopathy) and the traditional systems of medicine. It is a medicinal system that is affordable
as well as accessible to the common man. As part of an integrative system of medicine,
pharmacognosy can help to increase the effectiveness of the modern medicine system.
It
acts as a bridge between pharmacology, medicinal chemistry, pharmacotherapeutics, and also pharmaceutics. It also bridges pharmaceutics with
other pharmacy subjects.
More
than 60 percent of the world's population is still using natural products for their
primary healthcare needs. Pharmacognosy can provide safe and effective drugs in
combination with the modern medicine system.
Pharmacognosy
includes knowledge about the safe use of herbal drugs, including toxicity, side
effects, drug interactions, thereby increasing the effectiveness of modern medicine.
Pharmacognosy
is an important link between pharmacology and medicinal chemistry. As a result
of the rapid development of phytochemistry and pharmacological testing methods in
recent years, new plant drugs are finding their way into medicine as purified
phytochemicals, rather than in the form of traditional galenical preparations.
Pharmacognosy
is the basis for the development of novel medicines. Most of the compounds obtained
from natural products serve as prototypes or bases for the development of new drugs
that are more active and less toxic.
By
means of pharmacognosy, natural products can be dispensed, formulated, and
manufactured in dosage forms acceptable to the modern system of medicine.
There
is a vast number of plant and animal species that are not studied systematically.
The development of pharmacognosy also leads to the development of botany, taxonomy, plant
biotechnology, plant genetics, plant pathology, pharmaceutics, pharmacology,
phytochemistry, and other branches of science.
TRADITIONAL AND ALTERNATIVE SYSTEMS OF
MEDICINE IN INDIA
Traditional
medicine refers to health practices, approaches, knowledge, and beliefs
incorporating plant, animal, and mineral-based medicines, spiritual therapies,
manual techniques, and exercises, applied singularly or in combination to treat,
diagnose, and prevent illnesses or maintain well-being.
Alternative
medicine is a term that describes medical treatments that are used instead of
traditional (mainstream) therapies. Some people also refer to it as
“integrative,” or “complementary” medicine. More than half of adults in the
United States say they use some form of alternative medicine
Different
types of alternative systems of medicines in India
Ayurveda: The Ayurvedic System of Medicine evolved nearly 5000
years ago (3000 BC). The word Ayurveda means ‘Science of Life’ and employs
treatment modalities, such as purification, palliation, prescription of various
diets, exercises, and the avoidance of disease-causing factors.
Unani Medicine: Unani Medicine originated in the Arab world. Unani
medicine treats a patient with diet, pharmacotherapy, exercise, massages, and
surgery. It was introduced in India around the 10th century AD.
Homeopathy:
The word ‘Homeopathy’ is derived from the Greek words, ‘Homois’ meaning
‘similar’, and ‘pathos’ means ‘suffering’. It originated in Germany and was
introduced in India around 1810-1839. Homeopathy is based on the law of healing-
“similiaSimilibusCurantur’ which means ‘likes are cured by likes. It uses
highly individualized remedies selected to address specific symptoms or symptom
profiles.
Siddha: This system originated in India and is amongst the
oldest systems of medicine in the country. It takes into account the patient,
his/her surroundings, age, sex, race, habitat, diet, appetite, physical
condition, etc. to arrive at the diagnosis. Siddha System uses minerals, metals alloys and drugs, and inorganic compounds to treat patients. Unlike most
T&CM, this system is largely therapeutic in nature. Siddha literature is in
Tamilnadu.
Sowa-Ripa: The word combination means the ‘science of healing
and it's considered one of the oldest living and well-documented medical
traditions of the world. It originated from Tibet and is widely practiced in India,
Nepal, Bhutan, Mongolia, and Russia.
Acupuncture:
a system of complementary medicine in which fine needles are inserted in the
skin at specific points along what are considered to be lines of energy
(meridians), used in the treatment of various physical and mental conditions.
Yoga & Naturopathy: The concepts and practices of Yoga are reported to
have originated in India. Naturopathy or naturopathic medicine is a
drugless, non-invasive system of medicine imparting treatments with natural
elements based on the theories of vitality, toxemia, and the self-healing
capacity of the body as well as the principles of healthy living. The common
naturopathy modalities include counseling, diet and fasting therapy, mud theory,
hydrotherapy, massage therapy, acupressure, acupuncture, magnet therapy, and
yoga therapy.
AYURVEDA SYSTEM OF MEDICINE
Definition
Ayurveda is
a natural system of medicine, that originated in India more than 3,000 years ago.
The term Ayurveda is derived from the Sanskrit words Ayur (life) and Veda (science
or knowledge). Thus, Ayurveda translates to knowledge of life. Based on the
idea that disease is due to an imbalance or stress in a person's consciousness,
Ayurveda encourages certain lifestyle interventions and natural therapies to
regain a balance between the body, mind, spirit, and the environment. Ayurveda
treatment starts with an internal purification process, followed by a special
diet, herbal remedies, massage therapy, yoga, and meditation.
The
basic foundation is the fundamental doctrine according to which whatever is present in the Universe (macrocosm) should be present in the body (the
microcosm). It has been conceptualized that the universe is composed of five
basic elements named Prithvi (Earth), Jala (Water), Teja (Fire), Vayu (Air), and
Akash (Space/Ether). The human body is derived from them
in
which these basic elements join together to form what is known as ‘Tridoshas’
(humor) named Vata, Pitta, and Kapha. This humor governs and controls the
basic psycho-biological functions in the body. In addition to these three
humors, there exist seven basic tissues (sapthadhatus)- Rasa, Rakta, Mamsa,
Meda, Asthi, Majja, and Shukra- and three waste products of the body (mala) such
as feces, urine, and sweat. The healthy condition of the body represents the state
of optimum equilibrium among the three doshas. Whenever this equilibrium is disturbed
due to any reason- disease condition results. The growth and development of the
body components depend on nutrition provided in the form of food. The food is conceptualized
to be composed of the basic five elements mentioned above. Hence it is considered
to be the basic source material to replenish or nourish the different
components of the body after the action of bio-fire (Agni).
The diagnosis is always done by considering the patient as a whole object to be examined. The physician takes careful note of the patient's internal physiological characteristics and mental disposition. He also studies other factors like- the affected bodily tissues, humor, the site at which the disease is located, the patient's resistance and vitality, his daily routine, dietary habits, the gravity of clinical conditions, condition of digestion, and details of the personal, social, economic and environmental situation of the patient. The general examination is known as a ten-fold examination- through which a physician examines the following parameters in the patient-
1. Psychosomatic constitution,
2. Disease susceptibility,
3. Quality of tissues,
4. Body build,
5. Anthropometry,
6. Adaptability,
7. Mental health,
8. Digestive power,
9. Exercise endurance and
10. Age.
In addition to this, examination of pulse, urine, stool,
tongue, voice and speech, skin, eyes, and overall appearance is also carried out
(Kurup, 2002).
The
treatment lies in restoring the balance of disturbed humors (doshas) through
regulating diet, correcting life routine and behavior, administration of drugs, and resorting to preventive non-drug therapies known as ‘Panchkarma’ (Five
processes) and ‘Rasayana’ (rejuvenation) therapy. Before initiating treatment
many factors like the status of tissue and end products, environment, vitality,
time, digestion and metabolic power, body constitution, age, psyche, body
compatibility, and type of food consumed are taken into consideration.
Ayurveda
lays great emphasis on diet regulation. According to Ayurvedic concepts, food has a great influence on the physical, temperamental, and mental development of
an individual. Food is the basic material for the production of the body
and life-supporting vital matter known as Rasa. The rasa is converted to body
components and supports all types of life activities.
SIDDHA SYSTEM OF MEDICINE
The
term ‘Siddha’ is derived from the root word ‘Siddhi’ which means ‘an object to
be attained’ or ‘perfection’. The Siddha system of medicine owes its origin to
medicinal ideas and
practices
of a class of Tamil sages called the Siddhars – ‘perfected’ or ‘holy
immortals’.They had firm faith in the ‘deathless’ physical body being in tune
with the spiritual immortal ‘soul’,
Basic
Human Principles – 96 Thathuvas Five Elements
The primordial elements are called pancha mahabootham, namely mann (earth),
neer (water), thee (fire), kattru (air), and aagayam (space)
Three Humours
To
regulate the living body easily the five primodial elements were concised into
three humours namely vazhi (vadham or air), azhal (pittam
or heat), and Iyyam (kapha or cold), When
humours are in natural equilibrium and harmony, a person enjoys the best of health.
The
first one-third of one’s life is considered as vazhi period where a person
grows physically, psychologically, emotionally, spiritually, etc.
The
second one-third of one's life is considered as azhal period where life is considered
to be in the maintenance phase in physiological conditions.
Finally,
the last one-third of one’s life is physiologically attributed to the Iyyam period
or the destructive/senile phase of one life.
Five Sheaths (Kosham)
The
nature of being human encompasses physical and psychological aspects that
function as one holistic system.
The
Kosham system refers to different aspects as layers of subjective
experience. They are paruvaudambu – annamayakaosham (food- apparent-physical
sheath), valiudmambupranaamayakosham
(air-apparent-sheath), manaudambu-
manomayakosham (mind-apparent sheath), arivudambu – vijnanamayakosham
(wisdom-apparent-Intellectual sheath) and inbaudambu –anandamayakosham (bliss-
apparent sheath).
Ten Pranic Air (Vayus)
These ancillary vayus are not just responsible for physiological function but also contribute
to the psychological and spiritual components.
Siddha
Therapy: The foremost substance given for an imbalance of three humors or
illness is of herbal origin.
HOMEOPATHY SYSTEM OF MEDICINE
Homeopathy
is an age-old system of healing, with its discovery dating back to 1796. It was
discovered by a German doctor, Dr. Samuel Hahnemann, in his discontentment with
the then medical practices and lack of cures. Homeopathy is a nature-based
system that treats holistically as well as individually, by way of stimulating
one’s own immunity capable of fighting an illness.
Homeopathy In India
The
World Health Organization (WHO) data suggested that Homeopathy is currently the
second-largest system of medicine in the world.
Homeopathy
in India Homeopathy came to India in 1810 when Dr. Johm Martin Honigberger, a
French traveler who learned homeopathy from Dr. Hahnemann, visited India and
treated patients.
He
treated Maharaja Ranjit Sigh, the-then-ruler-of Punjab, with a homeopathic
remedy Dulcamara while he suffered from paralysis of the vocal cords.
BabuRajendraLalDutt
(1818-1889) may be called the Father of Indian Homeopathy.
Benefits of Homeopathy
The
principles that Homeopathy works on include such nature-based, pragmatic facts,
as treating a person holistically, through a single, simple medicine,
problems
like piles, tonsillitis, sinusitis, menstrual disorders, lifestyle diseases, and common mental and emotional disorders. prepared in a dynamic manner, and
prescribed in a dosage that is just enough to stir up the self-healing
mechanism of your own body.
One
of the potential aspects of Homeopathy is that it addresses these conditions in
a patient successfully, that too with a single, or at the most with two medicines.
Homeopathy
treats the multi-morbid person as a whole, which works on bringing back the
biological functions in order, thereby addressing them all, and thus helping
the patient holistically and simultaneously improving his/her general well-being.
Homeopathy
has been covered under the AYUSH Mission. Homeopathy medicine system due to its low
cost is a better alternative medication system. Homeopathy has proven strength in
the treatment of allergic disorders, skin diseases, children’s problems, and several so-called surgical.
UNANI SYSTEM OF MEDICINE:
Unani
medicine, also called Unanitibb, Arabian medicine, or Islamic medicine, is a
traditional system of healing and health maintenance observed in South Asia.
The origins of Unani medicine are found in the doctrines of the ancient Greek
physicians Hippocrates and Galen. It is a comprehensive medical system, which
meticulously deals with the various states of health and disease.
Principles of Unani Medicine
The temperament (Mizaj) of a patient is given great importance in the diagnosis and treatment of
disease with natural remedies derived mostly from plants.
Temperament
is also taken into consideration for identifying the most suitable diet and
lifestyle for promoting the health of the particular individual.
The unani system of Medicine considers the entire universe including human beings,
disease, drugs, environmental factors, etc. to be intrinsically defined by four
primary qualities – Hot, Cold, Dry, and Wet.
These
qualities are reflected in all the basic concepts of Unani System of Medicine
such as elements, temperament, and four humors, which are used for describing
and correlating human health and disease with promotive and curative factors
e.g. diet and drugs.
While
diagnosing and treating disease, the Unani System of Medicine looks holistically
into the overall physical, mental, and spiritual aspects of a person.
Unani
System of Medicine has the importance of psychiatric treatment in the
management of various diseases. Central Council for Research in Unani Medicine
(CCRUM) under the Ministry of AYUSH, Government of India has, over the past
three and a half decades, emerged as the leading research organization in Unani
Medicine. India has emerged as the world leader in the Unani System of Medicine.
NATUROPATHY SYSTEM OF MEDICINE
Naturopathy
is a traditional system of healing based upon natural principles that govern
life, living, and health. The references to such principles can be found in the
scriptures like Vedas, Upanishads, and
Epics like Ramayana and Mahabharata. Naturopathy is called a drugless system of
healthcare based on well-founded philosophy and practices. Its main emphasis is
on a holistic approach to health, covering not only physical but also the mental,
moral, and spiritual aspects.
Salient
Feature Of Naturopathy
Naturopathy
practice educates the patient on health matters. Naturopathic practices are
easy to follow and can be integrated systematically into the daily routine of people.
Naturopathy
believes that all living beings in nature stay healthy as long as they are in tune with the natural laws.
Naturopathy
is recognized and promoted as an independent system of healthcare under the ambit
of AYUSH.
Naturopathy
believes that the entire universe is composed of five basic elements
PanchamahabhutasEather (akasha), Air (Vayu), Fire (Agni), water (Jala), and
Earth (Prithvi) and so is the human body.
The imbalance of these elements creates disease. The diseases can therefore be treated by
the appropriate use of these elements and such treatments are called
PrakritikChikitsa or Naturopathy.
Therapeutic
Modalities Used in Naturopathy:
The main therapeutic modalities of Naturopathy employed for preventive promotive and curative purposes are the following-
Upvas
Chikitsa (Fasting Therapy)
Aahar
Chikitsa (Diet Therapy)
Mitti
Chikitsa (Mud Therapy)
Jala
Chikitsa (Hydro Therapy)
Malish
Chikitsa (Massage Therapy)
Surya
Kiran Chikitsa (Helio Therapy)
Vayus
Chikitsa (Air Therapy)
Yoga Chikitsa (Yoga Therapy)
ACUPUNCTURE SYSTEM OF MEDICINE
Acupuncture
is an ancient Chinese medicine-based approach to treating a variety of
conditions by triggering specific points on the skin with needles. Paul Kempisty, a licensed acupuncturist with an MS in traditional Oriental medicine, explains,
“[Acupuncture is] a minimally invasive method to stimulate nerve-rich areas of
the skin surface to influence tissues, gland, organs, and various
functions of the body.”
“Each
acupuncture needle produces a tiny injury at the insertion site, and although it’s
slight enough to cause little to no discomfort, it’s enough of a signal to let the
body know it needs to respond,” Kempisty
says. “This response involves stimulation of the immune system, promoting
circulation to the area, wound healing, and pain modulation.” Contemporary
research on acupuncture relies mainly on this theory.
What’s the philosophy behind acupuncture?
The
Chinese philosophy behind acupuncture is a bit more complicated, as the ancient
practice isn’t traditionally based on science and medicine. “They believed that
the human body was filled with and animated by an invisible life-giving force
which they called ‘qi’ (pronounced ‘chee’) and when the qi was flowing well and
going to all the right places, then a person would experience good mental and
physical health. When the qi was flowing incorrectly (blocked or deficient)
that would result in illness,” says Kempisty.
The
concept of qi isn’t too out there — think of it as your body’s natural inner
workings. Sometimes you’re more prone to illness when feeling stressed or
anxious. When you’re relaxed and healthy, your body physically reflects that too.
After all, your mood, mental health, and general well-being do affect your
physical health. Thus, acupuncture aims to assist people in achieving balance,
or qi, and, as a result, provide relief for many ailments.
Acupressure
points
Acupuncture
involves the insertion of very thin needles through your skin at strategic
points on your body. A key component of traditional Chinese medicine,
acupuncture is most commonly used to treat pain. Increasingly, it is being used
for overall wellness, including stress
What
should you not do after acupuncture?
Stay
Away from Alcohol and Coffee. After acupuncture, the body will release toxins
that need to be flushed out. Hence, drinking water is the key to eliminating
toxins from the body. Both alcohol and coffee dehydrate the body, and they will
not help in removing the toxins.
What
are the side effects of acupuncture?
The
most common side effects of acupuncture include bleeding, soreness, or bruising
at the site of needle insertion. Other risks of acupuncture include dizziness, fainting,
local internal bleeding,
convulsions, hepatitis B, dermatitis, nerve damage, increased pain, and very
rare injury to an internal organ.
Yoga
is a healing system of theory and practice, it is a combination of breathing
exercises, physical postures, and meditation, practiced for over 5,000 years. A
survey released in May 2004 by the National Center for Complementary and
Alternative Medicine focused on who used complementary and alternative medicine
(CAM), what was used, and why it was used in the United States by adults aged 18
years and over during 2002.
According
to this survey, Yoga was the 5th most commonly used CAM therapy (2.8%) in the
United States in 2002. Yoga is considered a mind-body intervention that is
used to reduce the health effects of generalized stress. Yoga is believed to
calm the nervous system and balance the body, mind, and spirit. It is thought
by its practitioners to prevent specific diseases and maladies by keeping the
energy meridians open and life energy (Parana) flowing.
Yoga
is usually performed in classes, sessions are conducted at least once a week
and for approximately 45 minutes. Yoga has been used to lower blood pressure,
reduce stress, and improve coordination, flexibility, concentration, sleep, and
digestion.
What
is yoga used to treat?
Because
of its concentration on mind and body integration, yoga therapy is also used to
address many physical health issues. It has been effectively used to treat back
pain, heart conditions, asthma, chronic fatigue, hypertension, multiple
sclerosis, and side effects of chemotherapy.
Improves
your flexibility. ...
Builds
muscle strength. ...
Perfects
your posture. ...
Prevents
cartilage and joint breakdown. ...
Protects
your spine. ...
Betters
your bone health. ...
Increases
your blood flow. ...
Drains
your lymphs and boosts immunity.
To
keep your joints healthy. ...
powerful
mindfulness practice. ...
reduces
stress. ...
lowers
blood pressure. ..
to
make healthier life choices.
COLLECTION AND PROCESSING OF HERBAL
DRUGS
COLLECTION
OF HERBAL DRUGS
The collection is the most important step which comes after cultivation. Drugs are collected from wild or cultivated plants and the tasks for collection depend upon the collector, whether he is skilled or unskilled labor. Drugs should be collected when they contain maximum amount of constituents in a highly scientific manner. The season at which each drug is collected is so important, as the amount, and sometimes the nature, of the active constituents could be changed throughout the year. For example, Rhubarb is collected only in the summer seasons because no anthraquinone derivatives would be present in the winter season but anthranols are converted to anthraquinones during summer. Not only the season but also the age of the plant should be taken into great consideration since it governs not only the total amount of active constituents produced in the plants but also the proportions of the constituents of the active mixture. A high proportion of polygon in young plants of peppermint will be replaced by Mentone and menthol and a reduction in the percentage of alkaloids in datura as the plant ages are examples of the effect of aging in plants.
Moreover, the composition of several secondary plant metabolites varies throughout
the day and night, and it is believed that some inter-conversion would happen
during the day and night.
Generally, the leaves are collected just before the flowering season, e.g. vasaka, digitalis, etc., at this time it is assumed that the whole plant has come to a healthy state and contains an optimum amount of metabolites, flowers are collected before they expand fully, e.g. clove, saffron, etc., and underground organs as the aerial parts of plant cells die, e.g. licorice, rauwolfia, etc. Since it is very difficult to collect the exact medicinally valuable parts, the official pharmacopeia has fixed a certain amount of foreign matter that is permissible with the drug. Some fruits are collected after their full maturity while others are collected after the fruits are ripe. Barks are usually collected in the spring season, as they are easy to separate from the wood during this season. The barks are collected using three techniques, felling (bark is peeled off after cutting the tree at the base), uprooting (the underground roots are dug out and barks are collected from branches and roots), and coppicing (plant is cut one meter above the ground level and barks are removed).
Underground
parts should be collected shaken, and dusted to remove the adhered
soil; water washing could be done if the adhered particles are too sticky with
plant parts. The unorganized drugs should be collected from plants as soon as
they ooze out, e.g. resins, latex, gums, etc. Discolored drugs or drugs that
were affected by insects should be rejected.
HARVESTING OF HERBAL DRUGS
Harvesting
is an important operation in cultivation technology, as it reflects upon the economic aspects of the crude drugs. An important point that needs attention
over here is the type of drug to be harvested and the pharmacopoeial standards
that it needs to achieve. Harvesting can be done efficiently in every respect
by skilled workers. Selectivity is of advantage in that the drugs other
than genuine, but similar in appearance can be rejected at the site of
collection. It is, however, a laborious job and may not be economical. In
certain cases, it cannot be replaced by any mechanical means, e.g. digitalis, tea,
vinca, and senna leaves. The underground drugs like roots, rhizomes, tubers,
etc. are harvested by mechanical devices, such as diggers or lifters. The
tubers or roots are thoroughly washed in water to get rid of earthy matter.
Drugs that constitute all aerial parts are harvested by binders for economic
reasons. Many times, flowers, seeds, and small fruits are harvested by a
special device known as a seed stripper. The technique of beating plants with
bamboo is used in the case of cloves. The cochineal insects are collected from
branches of cacti by brushing. The seaweeds producing agar are harvested by long-handled forks. Peppermint and
spearmint are harvested by normal methods with mowers, whereas fennel,
coriander, and caraway plants are uprooted and dried. After drying, either they
are thrashed or beaten and the fruits are separated by winnowing. Sometimes,
reaping machines are also used for their harvesting.
DRYING OF CRUDE DRUGS
Before
marketing a crude drug, it is necessary to process it properly, to
preserve it for a longer time and also to acquire better pharmaceutical
elegance. This process includes several operations or treatments, depending
upon the source of the crude drug (animal or plant) and its chemical nature.
Drying consists of the removal of sufficient moisture content of crude drug, to improve its quality and make it resistant to the growth of microorganisms.
Drying inhibits partially enzymatic reactions. Drying also facilitates the pulverizing or grinding of a crude drug. In certain drugs, some special methods
are required to be followed to attain specific standards, e.g. fermentation in the case
of Cinnamomum zeylanicum bark and gentian roots. The slicing and cutting into
smaller pieces is done to enhance drying, as in the case of glycyrrhiza, squill, and
calumba. The flowers are dried in shade to retain their colour and
volatile oil content. Depending upon the type of chemical constituents, a
method of drying can be used for a crude drug. Drying can be of two types - (1)
natural (sun drying) and (2) artificial.
Natural Drying (Sun-Drying): In case of natural drying, it may be either direct sun-drying or in the shed. If the natural color of the drug (digitalis, clove, senna) and the volatile principles of the drug (peppermint) are to be retained, drying in a shed is preferred. If the contents of the drugs are quite stable to the temperature and sunlight, the drugs can be dried directly in the sunshine (gum acacia, seeds, and fruits).
Artificial Drying: Drying by artificial means includes drying the drugs in (a) an oven; i.e. tray-dryers; (b) vacuum dryers and (c) spray dryers.
Tray dryers: The drugs that do not contain volatile oils and are quite stable to heat or which need deactivation of enzymes are dried in tray dryers. In this process, hot air of the desired temperature is circulated through the dryers and this facilitates the removal of the water content of the drugs (belladonna roots, cinchona bark, tea, raspberry leaves, and gums are dried by this method).
Vacuum dryers: The drugs that are sensitive to higher temperatures are dried by this process, e.g. Tannic acid and digitalis leaves.
Spray dryers: A few drugs that are highly sensitive to atmospheric conditions and also to the temperature of vacuum-drying are dried by the spray-drying method. The technique is followed for quick drying of economically important plant or animal constituents, rather than crude drugs. Examples of spray drying are papaya latex, pectin, tannins, etc.
The
next step in the preparation of crude drugs for the market after drying is garbling.
This process is desired when sand, dirt, and foreign organic parts of the same plant,
not constituting drugs are required to be removed. This foreign organic matter
(extraneous matter) is removed in several ways and means available and
practicable at the site of the preparation of the drugs. If the extraneous
matter is permitted in crude drugs, the quality of drug surfers, and at times, it
does not pass pharmacopeia limits. Excessive stems in the case of lobelia and
stramonium need to be removed, while the stalks, in the case of cloves, are to be deleted.
Drugs constituting rhizomes need to be separated carefully from roots and
rootlets and also stem bases. Pieces of iron must be removed with the magnet in the case of castor seeds before crushing and by shifting in the case of vinca and senna
leaves. Pieces of bark should be removed by peeling as in gum acacia.
PACKING OF CRUDE DRUGS
The morphological and chemical nature of the drug, its ultimate use, and effects of climatic conditions during transportation and storage should be taken into consideration while picking the drugs. Aloe is packed in goatskin. Colophony and balsam of tolu are packed in kerosene tins, while asafoetida is stored in well-closed containers to prevent the loss of volatile oil. Cod liver oil, being sensitive to sunlight, should be stored in such containers, which will not have the effect of sunlight, whereas, the leaf drugs like senna, vinca, and others are pressed and baled. The drugs that are very sensitive to moisture and also costly at the same time need special attention, e.g. digitalis, ergot, and squill. Squill becomes flexible; ergot becomes susceptible to microbial growth, while digitalis loses its potency due to the decomposition of glycosides if brought in contact with excess moisture during storage. Hence, the chemicals that absorb excessive moisture (desiccating agents) from the drug are incorporated in the containers. Colophony needs to be packed in big masses to control autooxidation. Cinnamon bark, which is available in the form of quills, is packed one inside the other quill, to facilitate transport and to prevent volatilization of oil from the drug.
Crude drugs like roots, seeds, and others do not need special attention and are packed in gunny bags, while in some cases bags are coated with polyethylene internally. The weight of certain drugs in lots is also kept constant e.g. Indian opium.
STORAGE OF CRUDE DRUGS
Preservation of crude drugs needs sound knowledge of their physical and chemical properties. The good quality of the drugs can be maintained if they are preserved properly. All the drugs should be preserved in well-closed and, possibly in the filled containers. They should be stored on the premises which are water-proof, fireproof, and rodent-proof. Several drugs absorb moisture during their storage and become susceptible to microbial growth. Some drugs absorb moisture to the extent of 25% of their weight. The moisture, not only increases the bulk of the drug but also causes impairment in the quality of the crude drug. The excessive moisture facilitates enzymatic reactions resulting in the decomposition of active constituents e.g. digitalis leaves and wild cherry bark. Gentian and ergot receive mold infestation due to excessive moisture. Radiation due to direct sunlight also causes the destruction of active chemical constituents, e.g. ergot, cod liver oil, and digitalis. The form or shape of the drug also plays a very important role in preserving crude drugs. Colophony in the entire form (big masses) is preserved nicely, but if stored in powdered form, it gets oxidized or loses solubility in petroleum ether. Squill, when stored in powdered form becomes hygroscopic and forms rubbery
mass
on prolonged exposure to air. The fixed oil in the powdered ergot becomes
rancid in storage. In order to maintain a good quality of ergot, it is required
that the drug should be defatted with lipid
solvent prior to storage. Lard, the purified internal fat of the abdomen of the
hog, is to be preserved against rancidity by adding siam benzoin. Atmospheric
oxygen is also destructive to several drugs and hence, they are filled
completely in well-closed containers, or the air in the container is replaced
by an inert gas like nitrogen; e.g. shark liver oil, papain, etc.
Apart from protection against adverse physical and chemical changes, preservation against insect or mold attacks is also important. Different types of insects, nematodes, worms, molds, and mites infest the crude drugs during storage. Some of the more important pests found in drugs are Coleoptera (Stegobium paniceum and Calandrum granarium), Lepidoptera (Ephestia kuehniella and Tinea pellionella), and
Archnida or mites (Tyroglyphus farina and Glyophagus domesticus). They can be prevented by drying the drug thoroughly
before storage and also by giving treatment of fumigants. The common fumigants
used for the storage of crude drugs are methyl bromide, carbon disulfide, and
hydrocyanic acid. At times, drugs are given special treatment, such as liming of
the ginger and coating of nutmeg. Temperature is also a significant factor in preserving the drugs, as it accelerates several chemical reactions leading to the decomposition of the constituents. Hence, most of the drugs need to be preserved
at a very low temperature. The costly phytopharmaceuticals are required to be preserved
at a refrigerated temperature in well-closed containers. Small quantities of
crude drugs could be readily stored in air-tight, moisture-proof, and light-proof
containers such as tin, cans, covered metal tins, or amber glass containers.
Wooden boxes and paper bags should not be
used for the storage of crude drugs.
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